Geography (Theory)

Factors affecting population distribution are grouped as geographical (water, landforms, climate, soils), economic (minerals, urbanisation, industrialisation) and social/cultural (religious importance, unrest).
Soils and availability of water are geographical factors; unrest is a social/cultural factor.
Urbanisation draws people to cities for jobs, education, health and transport facilities, so it is an economic factor.

Four approaches to human development: income approach, welfare approach, basic needs approach and capability approach.
The basic needs approach was first proposed by the ILO; it identified six basic needs: health, education, food, water supply, sanitation and housing.
The capability approach is linked with Amartya Sen; do not confuse the two.

Family planning means limiting or spacing the birth of children. Access to family planning services helps control population growth (birth rate) and improves the health of women.
Reducing child mortality is a health-care goal, not the stated aim of family planning (as per the official answer key).
So statements I, II and III are the objectives.

Truck farming is a type of market gardening in regions that specialise only in vegetables.
The name comes from the distance a truck can cover overnight between the farm and the city market.

The three main regions of commercial dairy farming are: North Western Europe (the largest), Canada and the north-eastern USA, and South-eastern Australia with New Zealand and Tasmania.
It is practised near urban and industrial centres that provide a market for fresh milk.

Mixed farming (highly developed parts of the world such as NW Europe, eastern North America) combines crop cultivation with animal husbandry.
Fodder crops are grown to feed the animals; crop rotation and intercropping keep the soil fertile.

In the NCERT table of the top ten countries with a high HDI value, Norway is first and Australia comes ahead of Germany, Denmark and Sweden.
So, of the given options, Australia has the highest rank (answer as per the official key, which follows the textbook table).

When information was digitised, telecommunication and computers converged.
The outcome of this convergence was integrated networks — the Internet.
So both statements are true and II follows directly from I.

Push factors make the place of origin less attractive: unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics.
Pull factors make the destination attractive: better jobs, peace and stability, security of life and property, pleasant climate.
Options (b), (c), (d) are pull factors.

Census 2011 data: among the given north-eastern states, Mizoram had the highest decadal growth (about 23–24%) during 2001–2011.
Nagaland actually showed a negative growth in this decade, so it is a common trap.

Share of speakers in India: Indo-European (Aryan) about 73%, Dravidian about 20%, Austric (Nishada) about 1.38%, Sino-Tibetan (Kirata) about 0.85%.
So the descending order is Indo-European, Dravidian, Austric, Sino-Tibetan.

Common property resources (CPRs) are owned by the community/state and can be used by everyone: community forests, pastures, village water bodies and other public spaces.
Agricultural land and residential land are privately owned, so II and III are not CPRs.

Kandla (Deendayal Port) in the Gulf of Kachchh was developed after Partition to reduce the load on Mumbai port.
It was specially designed to receive large quantities of petroleum, petroleum products and fertilizers; an offshore terminal at Vadinar helps it.

North Central Railway → Prayagraj (Allahabad).
East Central Railway → Hajipur (Bihar).
West Central Railway → Jabalpur (MP).
South Central Railway → Secunderabad (Telangana).

Remittances are the money (and sometimes goods) that migrants send back to their families at the place of origin — like the ₹20,000 a year Ramesh sends to his father. They are a major source of income for families in the source region.

Most people move from villages to cities in search of work and better wages; poverty, little land and lack of jobs in villages push them, while job opportunities in cities pull them. Ramesh too moved because of poverty and the hope of a job.

Mostly young adult men migrate to cities, so the destination gets more young males and the villages are left with more women, children and the elderly — an imbalance in age and sex composition, which is a demographic consequence. The other options are social, economic or cultural consequences.

(18.1) Secondary activities turn raw material into goods using machinery, production techniques and factory processes. Tertiary activities do not produce goods; their output (service) depends mainly on the specialised skills, experience and knowledge of the worker.
(18.2) Production: a doctor, lawyer or teacher 'produces' a service and is paid a fee. Exchange: trade, transport and communication help in exchanging goods and services between producers and consumers. Any one link earns the mark.
(18.3) Examples: trade (retail/wholesale), transport, communication, health care, education, banking, tourism — any two (½ mark each).

(19.1) Scan the decennial-growth column: the largest value is 46.14% against 1981.
(19.2) Read the 2001 row: urban population = 2,85,355 thousand ≈ 285 million.
(19.3) Increase = 6,171 − 1,827 = 4,344 towns. As a percentage: 4,344 ÷ 1,827 × 100 ≈ 238%.
Tip: the units of the population column are thousands — mention it.

1. Technology reflects the level of cultural development of a society; it grows only as people understand natural laws.
2. Examples: understanding friction and heat led to the discovery of fire; understanding DNA and genetics helps us fight diseases; laws of aerodynamics help build faster aircraft.
3. Knowledge of nature is therefore essential for technology, and technology in turn reduces the control of the environment over humans.
4. In the early stages, with primitive technology, humans were greatly influenced by nature, adapted to it and even worshipped it — this is 'naturalisation of humans' (environmental determinism).
Any three points, 1 mark each.

1. Over time people come to understand their environment and the forces of nature.
2. As societies develop socially and culturally, they create better and more efficient technology.
3. Humans move from a state of necessity to a state of freedom and create possibilities using resources taken from the environment (possibilism).
4. The result is a cultural landscape — the imprint of humans: health resorts on highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures in plains and rolling hills, ports, ocean routes on the sea surface and satellites in space.
Any three points, 1 mark each.

1. Mortality fell sharply because of better health care, control of epidemics and improved food supply, while fertility remained high — the gap produced very fast growth.
2. The average annual growth rate rose to about 2.2%, the highest in India's history.
3. After independence, developmental activities were started through centralised five-year planning; the economy improved and so did living conditions of people.
4. (Extra) International migration of refugees (e.g., from Tibet, Bangladesh, Pakistan) also added to the numbers.
Any three points, 1 mark each.

NMSA is one of the missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. Its objectives:
1. To make agriculture more productive.
2. To make it sustainable and remunerative for the farmer.
3. To make it climate resilient by promoting location-specific integrated or composite farming systems.
4. To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation measures.
Any three, 1 mark each.

1. Extent: Karnataka, Goa, contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
2. Rich in ferrous minerals and bauxite.
3. Contains high-grade iron ore (e.g., Kudremukh, Goa), manganese and limestone.
4. Lacks coal deposits; the only exception is the lignite of Neyveli (Tamil Nadu).
5. Kerala has monazite and thorium-bearing sands and bauxite clay.
Any three points.

1. Extent: along the Aravalli range in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat.
2. The minerals are associated with the Dharwar system of rocks.
3. Copper and zinc are the major minerals (e.g., Khetri copper).
4. Rajasthan is rich in building stones — sandstone, granite, marble; gypsum and Fuller's earth deposits are also extensive; dolomite and limestone provide raw material for cement.
5. Gujarat has petroleum deposits and salt.
Any three points.

Industries locate where production cost is lowest:
1. Market: the presence of buyers with purchasing power; densely populated developed regions are big markets (e.g., Europe, N America).
2. Raw material: industries using heavy, cheap, weight-losing or perishable raw material locate near the source (steel near iron/coal, sugar near cane fields, dairy).
3. Labour supply: some industries need large skilled/unskilled labour; mechanisation has reduced this, but it still matters.
4. Energy: power-hungry industries (aluminium) locate near cheap energy sources.
5. Transport and communication: fast, efficient transport carries raw material and finished goods; Western Europe and eastern N America have dense networks.
6. Government policy: governments encourage 'balanced' regional development with incentives.
7. Agglomeration economies: industries benefit from being near a leader industry.
Any five factors analysed, 1 mark each.

1. Agro-based industries: process raw materials from fields and farms into finished goods — food processing, sugar, pickles, fruit juices, beverages, spices, oils, cotton textiles, rubber.
2. Mineral-based industries: use minerals as raw material; ferrous metal-based (iron and steel) and non-ferrous (aluminium, copper, jewellery); also cement and pottery using non-metallic minerals.
3. Chemical-based industries: use natural chemicals (salt, sulphur, potash) or petroleum — petrochemicals, synthetic fibre, plastics.
4. Forest-based industries: use forest products — timber for furniture, wood/bamboo/grass for paper, lac, gums, tanning.
5. Animal-based industries: leather from hides and skins, wool from fleece, ivory from tusks.
Each type explained with an example, 1 mark each.

1. Pipelines give a continuous, uninterrupted flow of liquids and gases such as water, petroleum and natural gas.
2. Water supply through pipelines to houses is familiar in every town.
3. Cooking gas (LPG/PNG) is supplied through pipelines in many parts of the world.
4. Pipelines can also carry liquefied coal (slurry).
5. In New Zealand, milk is sent through pipelines from farms to factories.
6. The USA has a dense network of oil pipelines from producing areas to consuming areas; the 'Big Inch' carries petroleum from the Gulf of Mexico oil wells to the north-east.
7. Other examples: pipelines in Europe, Russia, West Asia; in India HBJ (Hazira–Bijaipur–Jagdishpur) gas pipeline.
Any five arguments, 1 mark each.

Definition (1 mark): International trade is the exchange of goods and services among countries across their national boundaries; it is needed because no country can produce everything it requires.
Bilateral trade (2 marks): carried out between two countries. They sign an agreement to trade specified commodities with each other, e.g., country A sells certain raw materials to country B and agrees to buy some specified goods from B in return.
Multilateral trade (2 marks): one country trades with several trading partners at the same time. A country may grant 'Most Favoured Nation' (MFN) status to some partners, giving them the same favourable terms.
Marks: 1 + 2 + 2.

Measures for ecological sustainability in the IGNP command area:
1. Strict implementation of the water management policy is the first requirement.
2. The project plans protective irrigation in Stage I and extensive irrigation of crops plus pasture development in Stage II.
3. The cropping pattern should avoid water-intensive crops; farmers should be encouraged to grow plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
4. Command Area Development programmes — lining of water courses, land development and levelling, and the warabandi system (equal distribution of canal water) — should be implemented to reduce conveyance loss.
5. Areas affected by waterlogging and soil salinity should be reclaimed.
6. Eco-development through afforestation, shelter-belt plantation and pasture development is necessary, especially in the fragile environment of Stage II.
7. Poor landholders should get financial and institutional support so that they can cultivate their land.
Any five points evaluated, 1 mark each.

1. India's road network is one of the largest in the world; roads carry about 85% of passenger traffic and 70% of freight traffic every year.
2. For construction and maintenance, roads are classified into National Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads and Rural Roads.
3. National Highways connect state capitals, major cities, ports and railway junctions; projects like the Golden Quadrilateral and the North–South and East–West corridors are built by NHAI.
4. State Highways link state capitals with district headquarters.
5. District roads connect district headquarters with important places in the district.
6. Rural roads (PMGSY) are the vital link for villages.
7. Border roads (BRO) are of strategic importance in frontier areas and help development of remote regions.
Any five points.

1. Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country, with a network of about 67,000+ km route length.
2. It moves huge numbers of passengers and large quantities of goods, contributing to the growth of the economy.
3. It integrates people of different castes, religions, cultures and economic conditions — a unifying force.
4. For better management the system is divided into 16 zones.
5. Konkan Railway (Roha to Mangaluru, through the Western Ghats) is an important engineering achievement.
6. The system is being upgraded — gauge conversion, electrification, metro rail in cities.
Any five points.

A: Algeria is the largest country in Africa by area (since Sudan's division in 2011).
B: The Pampas of Argentina are a temperate grassland region of extensive commercial grain (wheat) farming.
C: Yokohama, near Tokyo, is a major seaport of Japan.
D: The Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
E: Auckland is the main international airport of New Zealand (Wellington also accepted in the VI version).
F: The Trans-Australian Railway runs from Sydney in the east to Perth in the west, so Perth is the westernmost station.
G: Brazil is the largest country of South America.
Any five correct, 1 mark each.

(30.1) Bihar has the highest density (1,106 persons/km², Census 2011) — shade the state.
(30.2) Of the million-plus giants (Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata), Kolkata is farthest east — mark on the Hugli in West Bengal.
(30.3) Gujarat leads cotton production — shade the state.
(30.4) Mathura refinery, western UP near Agra.
(30.5) Neyveli lignite (coal) mines, near Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu.
(30.6) Paradip port on the Mahanadi delta.
(30.7) Amritsar international airport, Punjab.
Any five correctly located and labelled, 1 mark each.