History

The Harappan script is still a mystery – nobody has been able to read it.
It was not alphabetical: it had roughly 375–400 signs, far too many for an alphabet.
It was most probably written from right to left (spacing on seals is cramped on the left side).
So (A), (B) and (D) are wrong; (C) is correct.

Terracotta plough models have been found at Cholistan (Pakistan) and Banawali (Haryana), showing that oxen were used for ploughing.
Common mix-up: Kalibangan gave evidence of a ploughed field (furrows), not a plough model.

Buddhism grew rapidly in the Buddha's lifetime and later.
The reason given in NCERT: people were dissatisfied with existing (sacrificial, ritual-heavy) practices and confused by rapid social change (new cities, kingdoms, trade).
Buddhism stressed conduct and values rather than birth, which appealed to them. So R is the correct explanation of A.

Jain teaching: the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma (I correct).
To escape it, asceticism and penance are needed, which is possible only by renouncing the world – usually by living in a monastery (II correct).
Ahimsa (non-injury to all beings) is central (IV correct).
III is the opposite of Jain belief – freedom from worldly existence, not worldly life, leads to salvation.

Magadha – south Bihar, capital Rajagaha and later Pataliputra (Patna) → III.
Avanti – capital Ujjayini (Ujjain, MP) → IV.
Gandhara – north-west, the Qandahar/eastern Afghanistan region → I.
Koshala – capital Shravasti; Ayodhya region of UP → II.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Chandragupta II (Gupta dynasty) and was married into the Vakataka family of the Deccan.
She is remembered for her land-grant inscription – an example of a woman who had access to land and could grant it, which was unusual under Brahmanical norms.

The most famous temple carved out of a single rock is the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora (Maharashtra), built in the 8th century under the Rashtrakutas.
The whole structure was carved from top to bottom out of one piece of rock – an amazing feat of planning.
Deogarh is a structural Gupta temple; Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur) is a built stone temple; Mahabalipuram has small monolithic rathas, not this complex.

Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, has 80 chapters on religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
Its aim was to describe (document) Indian society and culture for readers, especially those who wanted to understand India – not to preach or attack it.

Ibn Battuta was an inveterate traveller who valued experience gained through travel more than books.
Meeting many peoples, learning their customs and recording them carefully would build cultural understanding and skills of adapting to new societies.
The other options are not the natural outcome of travel described in the question.

Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian employed by the English East India Company, brought the Hampi ruins to light in 1800 and prepared the first survey maps of the site.
Much of his early information came from the memories of the priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi – not from Duarte Barbosa. So IV is wrong.

Afanasii Nikitin – Russian merchant (II).
Domingo Paes – Portuguese traveller who described Vijayanagara (III).
Abdur Razzaq – ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia (I).
Nicolo de Conti – Italian trader (IV).

The cornerstone source for Mughal agrarian history is the Ain-i Akbari, compiled by Abu'l Fazl, Akbar's court historian.
It records cultivation, revenue collection, and relations between the state and zamindars in detail.
Options (B) and (D) are topics, not sources.

Zamindars were landed proprietors who collected revenue for the Mughal state and got a share (compensation) for it.
They were not uniformly exploitative and relations were not always cordial – both are generalisations. They held extensive personal lands (milkiyat), so (D) is wrong.

Kabir rejected rituals, idol worship and blind following of tradition, and taught that the Ultimate Reality can be reached through simple, sincere devotion.
So a person seeking a simple, direct bond with God, beyond religious divisions, reflects his message today.

Santhals had settled in the Damin-i-Koh area. Soon the state levied heavy taxes on their land, moneylenders charged high interest and seized land for unpaid debts, and zamindars asserted control.
This loss of land and heavy burden led to the Santhal revolt of 1855–56.
Summary Settlement belongs to Awadh (1856), not the Santhals.

The Sunset Law (pay by sunset or the estate is auctioned), the Burdwan auction of 1797 and the Fifth Report (1813) all relate to the Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
The Deccan Riots Commission was set up after the 1875 Deccan revolt against moneylenders in Bombay Deccan, under the ryotwari system – so it is the odd one out.

Shah Mal – pargana Baraut (UP) → III.
Kunwar Singh – zamindar of Arrah (Bihar) → IV.
Birjis Qadr – young son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, proclaimed leader at Lucknow → I.
Nana Sahib – adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, led the revolt at Kanpur → II.

Jallianwala Bagh – April 1919.
Gandhi–Irwin Pact – March 1931.
Quit India Movement – August 1942.
Constituent Assembly – formed 1946 (first met December 1946).
Order: II → IV → III → I.

Under the Subsidiary Alliance, the British were responsible for protecting their ally's territory from external and internal threats.
In return the ally had to keep a British armed contingent in his territory and pay for it, could not ally with other rulers without British permission, and had to accept a British Resident.
Note: the army maintained was a British contingent paid for by the ruler, so (B) is wrong.

Jawaharlal Nehru chaired the Union Powers Committee (also the Union Constitution and States Committees).
The Flag (ad hoc) Committee and the Rules of Procedure Committee were headed by Rajendra Prasad; H.C. Mookerjee headed the minorities sub-committee; J.B. Kripalani headed the Fundamental Rights sub-committee.

Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected President of the Constituent Assembly; his role was to steer the discussions constructively.
In 1950 he became the first President of the Republic of India.

Points (any three):
1. They are Ashoka's own words, engraved on natural rocks and polished pillars – first-hand evidence.
2. They mention five major political centres (Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri), showing how the empire was organised.
3. The same messages are found from the north-west to Orissa – showing the reach of his administration.
4. They spread his dhamma: respect for elders, generosity to Brahmanas and renouncers, kind treatment of slaves and servants, respect for all religions.
5. They mention special officers (dhamma mahamattas) and reporters (pativedakas) who kept the king informed.
6. Most are in Prakrit (Brahmi script); in the north-west Aramaic, Greek and Kharosthi were used – showing he tried to reach local people.

Any three:
1. Archaeological finds, especially sculpture and remains of monasteries.
2. Contemporary works such as the Arthashastra (parts probably by Kautilya/Chanakya).
3. The account of Megasthenes, Greek ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya's court (surviving in fragments).
4. Later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, and Sanskrit literary works.
5. Ashoka's inscriptions on rocks and pillars – often treated as the most valuable source.
6. Punch-marked coins showing trade and economy.

Any three:
1. Great thinkers emerged in many regions at the same time – Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi (Confucius) in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India.
2. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between humans and the cosmic order.
3. In India, this was the time of new kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) and cities.
4. Social and economic life was changing – use of iron, spread of agriculture, punch-marked coins and trade.
5. This led to the growth of diverse systems of thought and debate.

Any three:
1. After Krishnadeva Raya's death (1529), strains appeared in the imperial structure.
2. His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas (military chiefs).
3. The military ambitions of Vijayanagara and of the Deccan Sultanates led to shifting alliances.
4. Rama Raya, the chief minister, tried to play one Sultan against another; the Sultanates then united against him.
5. In 1565 at the battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda defeated Rama Raya.
6. The victorious armies sacked the city, which was abandoned within a few years.

Any three:
1. Many of its features were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
2. Amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya.
3. They collected taxes and dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area.
4. They kept part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
5. These contingents gave the king an effective fighting force.
6. They sent tribute to the king annually and appeared in court with gifts to show loyalty; kings sometimes transferred them to keep control.

Any three:
1. The panchayat was an assembly of elders, usually important people with hereditary rights; it was heterogeneous in mixed-caste villages.
2. Its decisions were binding on members.
3. Common funds collected from individuals were used for community welfare, e.g., during natural calamities, and for meeting revenue officials.
4. It ensured caste boundaries were maintained and supervised conduct; it could levy fines and even expel offenders.
5. Jati panchayats settled civil disputes, e.g., over land claims.
6. Petitions from common people, including women and lower castes, complained against extortion by upper castes or officials – the panchayat was the place of redress, and the state generally respected its decisions.

Any three:
1. Rebel proclamations repeatedly appealed to all sections of the population, irrespective of caste and creed.
2. The ishtahars looked back to the pre-British past and praised the co-existence of communities under the Mughal empire.
3. Many proclamations were issued by Muslim princes but took care of Hindu feelings.
4. The proclamation in Bahadur Shah's name asked people to join under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.
5. Fear of Christian missionaries converting people and of losing caste and religion was shared by both communities.
6. Though the British tried (e.g., spending money in Bareilly in December 1857) to set Hindus against Muslims, they failed.

Any three:
1. A lawyer and economist, he was one of the most important members of the Assembly.
2. Though a political opponent of the Congress earlier, on Gandhi's advice he was asked to join the Union Cabinet as Law Minister.
3. He served as Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution.
4. He had the responsibility of guiding the Draft Constitution through the Assembly, helped by B.N. Rau and S.N. Mukherjee.
5. He spoke for a strong and united centre to stop violence.
6. He accepted that separate electorates were no longer needed and stressed safeguards like reservation for the depressed classes.

Any eight points:
1. Families were part of larger networks of relatives (kinfolk); family ties were seen as natural but defined in many ways (some societies treat cousins as blood relatives, others do not).
2. The Mahabharata's central story is a feud over land and power between two sets of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, of a single ruling family (Kuru lineage).
3. The Pandavas won; the story strengthened the ideal of patriliny (descent from father to son).
4. Under patriliny sons could claim their father's resources, including the throne.
5. Most ruling dynasties from about the 6th century BCE claimed to follow patriliny.
6. There were variations: sometimes brothers succeeded one another, sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne.
7. In exceptional cases women held power, e.g., Prabhavati Gupta.
8. Brahmanas laid down codes of social behaviour in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, but these were not followed by everyone.
9. Eight forms of marriage were recognised; examples outside the norm include Draupadi's polyandrous marriage and Bhima's marriage to Hidimba (a 'rakshasa' woman).
10. Gotra rules (wife takes husband's gotra, no marriage within the gotra) were not followed by all, e.g., Satavahana queens kept their fathers' gotra names and some married within the family.
11. Mothers were respected, but their advice was not always followed – Gandhari's plea to Duryodhana to make peace was ignored; Kunti's role too shows this.
12. Hierarchy of caste and gender shaped who was respected in the family.

Any eight points:
1. According to the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, only Kshatriyas were supposed to be kings.
2. In practice, these norms were not universally followed – many important ruling lineages had different origins.
3. The social background of the Mauryas is debated: later Buddhist texts call them Kshatriyas, while Brahmanical texts describe them as of 'low' origin.
4. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.
5. The Shakas from Central Asia were regarded as mlechchhas (barbarians/outsiders) by Brahmanas, yet they ruled.
6. Some mlechchhas adopted Sanskrit traditions – Shaka ruler Rudradaman's inscription records rebuilding the Sudarshana lake.
7. The Satavahana ruler Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani claimed to be a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.
8. The Satavahanas also married into other families (e.g., Shakas), showing that political needs mattered more than varna rules.
9. Thus political power was open to anyone who could muster support and resources; birth as Kshatriya was not essential, though rulers often sought Brahmana support to legitimise power.

Any eight points:
1. Baba Guru Nanak (1469–1539), born at Nankana Sahib, spent time among sufis and bhaktas; his message is found in his hymns.
2. He advocated nirguna bhakti – devotion to a God without attributes or form.
3. He firmly rejected external practices of religions he saw around him.
4. He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
5. For him the Absolute or 'rab' had no gender or form.
6. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine: by remembering and repeating the Divine Name (nam-simaran).
7. He expressed his ideas in hymns called 'shabad' in Punjabi, the local language, and sang them in various ragas with his attendant Mardana.
8. He organised his followers into a community.
9. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation.
10. He appointed his disciple Angad as his successor guru; this practice continued for about 200 years.
11. His hymns were later compiled by Guru Arjan in the Adi Granth Sahib.
Note: Guru Nanak did not intend to found a new religion, but his teachings became the basis of the Sikh community.

Any eight points:
1. The Chishtis were a group of sufis who migrated to India in the late 12th century; they adapted successfully to local conditions.
2. The khanqah (hospice) was the centre of their social life; Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya's hospice near Delhi had courtyards and rooms for visitors.
3. An open kitchen (langar) was run on futuh (unasked-for charity).
4. People from all walks of life – soldiers, slaves, singers, traders, poets, travellers, rich and poor, Hindu jogis – came there.
5. Practices from local traditions were adopted: bowing before the shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates and yogic exercises.
6. Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several spiritual successors and sent them to set up hospices in different parts of the subcontinent.
7. Pilgrimage (ziyarat) to tombs of sufi saints was common; the dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer was the most revered – Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first sultan to visit it and Akbar visited it fourteen times.
8. Music and dance, including mystical chants by qawwals (sama), were part of ziyarat, to evoke divine ecstasy.
9. They remembered God through zikr (reciting the Divine Names).
10. Many Chishtis composed in local languages (Hindavi), which spread their message to ordinary people.

Any eight points:
1. Gandhiji returned in 1915 and soon became the undisputed leader of the masses.
2. Local satyagrahas at Champaran (1917), Kheda and Ahmedabad (1918) brought peasants and workers into the movement.
3. The idea of satyagraha and non-violence gained wide acceptance.
4. The Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) was the first all-India mass campaign.
5. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): students left schools, lawyers boycotted courts, workers struck, peasants and tribals defied laws.
6. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) began with the Salt March, involving people across India.
7. People of different regions, classes and religions joined – the movement became truly national.
8. Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance promoted Hindu-Muslim unity.
9. Khadi and the charkha became symbols of the movement; indigenous handicrafts and swadeshi were promoted; self-reliance grew.
10. Boycott of British goods and institutions, resignations from government offices and non-payment of taxes became common.
11. Women participated on a large scale (especially in 1930).
12. Ordinary people gained political awareness and confidence to challenge colonial rule.

Any eight points:
1. On 15 August 1947 Gandhiji did not attend the celebrations in the capital; he was in Calcutta.
2. He did not attend any function or hoist a flag; he marked the day with a 24-hour fast.
3. The freedom he had struggled for came with partition and communal violence, which saddened him deeply.
4. He moved through riot-affected areas, visited hospitals and refugee camps and consoled distressed people.
5. He appealed to Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims to forget the past and live in harmony; he worked for the protection of minorities.
6. After bringing peace to Calcutta/Bengal he went to Delhi, where violence was raging.
7. In Delhi he urged everyone to live peacefully and held prayer meetings; he undertook a fast to bring communal peace.
8. He insisted that Muslims must be able to live in India with dignity and equality – this made extremists angry.
9. On 30 January 1948 he was shot dead by Nathuram Godse; his death caused an outpouring of grief and was a moment of reflection for the nation.

(i) Drains seem to have been planned first and houses built along them; such uniformity points to urban planning and possibly a central authority directing it.
(ii) The heaps show that drains were cleaned regularly as a maintenance practice, but the removed material was sometimes left lying beside the channel.
(iii) Any two: it reflects a highly organised society focused on public health and cleanliness; since every house was connected, sanitation was available to all residents (a relatively equal access to amenities); it reduced waste-related diseases and gave a cleaner living environment; it shows advanced engineering skills.

(i) Bernier, a French doctor, wrote 'Travels in the Mughal Empire' and made a comparative study of India and Europe (showing Europe as superior).
(ii) He saw European kingdoms as rich, well-cultivated and flourishing, while he described Mughal territories as ruined and neglected – he warned Europe would fall to ruin if it followed the Mughal model.
(iii) Any two: the Mughal emperor owned all land, so there was no private property and no class of 'improving' landlords; agriculture was ruined and peasants oppressed; living standards of everyone except the ruling aristocracy declined; artisans had no motive to improve their products as profits went to the state; yet he also noted a large, prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade.

(i) He found the view exceedingly fine – rice valleys winding in all directions, cleared lands with scattered trees and rocky hills.
(ii) He felt the land was fertile and capable of 'improvement' – forests could be cleared and brought under settled cultivation.
(iii) Any two: plant Asan and Palas trees to rear tassar silkworms and lac; clear the remaining forest and cultivate most of it; on land unfit for crops, grow palmyra and mahua. This reflects the Company's commercial view – forests as unproductive land to be turned into revenue.